Child Development Science: Research-Backed Early Learning

Early childhood represents a critical period for brain development, with over one million neural connections forming per second during the first five years of life (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2007). Recent neuroimaging research tracking 11,800 children across multiple countries confirms that brain structure development during early childhood follows predictable patterns while showing meaningful individual variation based on environmental experiences (Bethlehem et al., 2022).

Children’s brains are building themselves in real-time. Every conversation, every game, every moment of play creates neural pathways that last a lifetime. ThinkPlayful™ combines cutting-edge neuroscience with practical early childhood education to support this incredible journey of growth.

Why Adult Interaction Matters Most

Parent-child interaction quality predicts academic success more reliably than socioeconomic status alone (Landry et al., 2002; National Research Council, 2000).

Parents and caregivers serve as children’s first and most important teachers. The quality of adult interaction, including responsiveness, language richness, and warmth, directly influences how children’s brains develop. Research shows that interactive engagement, not passive screen time, drives cognitive growth (Kuhl, 2010).

What makes the difference:

• Back-and-forth conversations: “Serve and return” exchanges build neural pathways for language and thinking

• Timely support: Adults provide help when children attempt new challenges (without making tasks too easy)

• Joint attention: Shared focus on objects or activities strengthens learning and memory

• Emotional guidance: Calm adult presence helps children develop self-regulation skills

Read about WestEd’s research showing that ThinkPlayful™ improves caregiver-child relationships.

Learn more from the Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University.

Executive Function Development

Executive function skills in preschool predict academic achievement and life outcomes more strongly than IQ (Blair & Razza, 2007; Moffitt et al., 2011). Play-based programs effectively enhance executive function when they incorporate structured adult guidance (Gonzalez et al., 2021).

Executive function which includes things like working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility, develops rapidly during the preschool years. These skills enable children to plan, focus attention, remember instructions, and manage multiple tasks. The prefrontal cortex supports these abilities, develops gradually throughout early childhood, and requires appropriate challenges and adult support.

Developmental milestones by age:

• Ages 2-3: Beginning to wait short periods, follow simple two-step instructions, resist immediate impulses with support

• Ages 3-4: Can follow three-step directions, take turns in games, begin planning simple activities, show improved attention span (5-10 minutes)

• Ages 4-5: Demonstrate self-control in structured settings, hold multiple instructions in mind, shift between activities with reminders, focus for 10-15 minutes on engaging tasks

How adults support executive function:

• Providing structured activities that require planning and self-control

• Using verbal scaffolding to help children think through problems

• Modeling self-regulation strategies during everyday activities

• Creating predictable routines that help children anticipate and prepare

Language and Literacy Foundations

Rich language experiences in early years create stronger neural pathways for communication and literacy (Kuhl, 2010; Goldin-Meadow et al., 2014). The quantity and quality of adult speech to young children significantly impacts vocabulary development and later reading success (Weisleder & Fernald, 2013).

Brain imaging studies reveal that interactive conversation drives language development. The brain’s language networks develop through social interaction, with adults serving as essential conversation partners who provide the rich linguistic input children need.

Developmental milestones by age:

• Ages 2-3: Vocabulary explosion from 50-200 words to 500-1,000 words, two-to-three-word sentences, beginning to use pronouns and plurals

• Ages 3-4: Speaking in complete sentences (4-5 words), asking “why” questions constantly, vocabulary of 1,000-2,000 words, telling simple stories

• Ages 4-5: Complex sentences with proper grammar, vocabulary of 2,500+ words, understanding abstract concepts, rhyming and sound play, recognizing some letters

Adult strategies that enhance language development:

• Engaging in “serve and return” conversations where adults respond to children’s vocalizations

• Using varied and descriptive vocabulary during everyday activities

• Reading together with discussion and questioning

• Narrating daily routines to build language comprehension

Mathematical Thinking and Number Sense

Early mathematical thinking predicts later academic achievement across subjects, not just mathematics (Duncan et al., 2007; National Research Council, 2009).

Number sense emerges through concrete experiences with quantities, patterns, and relationships. Children develop mathematical understanding through hands-on exploration guided by adults who help them notice mathematical concepts in everyday life.

Developmental milestones by age:

• Ages 2-3: Counting to 5-10 (may skip numbers), understanding “more” vs “less,” sorting by one attribute (color or size), beginning to recognize numerals 1-3

• Ages 3-4: Counting to 10-20 with accuracy, one-to-one correspondence (matching number to object), comparing quantities, recognizing numerals 1-5, understanding basic shapes

• Ages 4-5: Counting to 20+, beginning addition/subtraction concepts with objects, understanding number order, recognizing written numerals to 10, creating and extending patterns, comparing measurements

How adults build mathematical foundations:

• Pointing out numbers, quantities, and patterns in daily routines

• Asking questions that encourage mathematical thinking (“Which has more?”)

• Playing counting games and using mathematical language naturally

• Providing materials that allow exploration of quantity and spatial relationships

Read the full National Research Council report on early mathematics learning.

Physical Development and Motor Skills

Gross and fine motor development during the preschool years establishes the physical foundation for school readiness, self-care, and lifelong physical activity (National Association for Sport and Physical Education, 2009).

Physical development encompasses both gross motor skills (large movements like running and jumping) and fine motor skills (precise movements like drawing and manipulating small objects). These skills develop through active play and hands-on experiences, with motor development directly supporting cognitive growth and learning readiness.

Gross motor milestones by age:

• Ages 2-3: Running smoothly, jumping with both feet, kicking a ball, climbing stairs alternating feet, pedaling a tricycle

• Ages 3-4: Balancing on one foot briefly, throwing overhand, catching a large ball, hopping on one foot, beginning to skip

• Ages 4-5: Skipping smoothly, balancing on one foot 5+ seconds, catching a smaller ball, somersaults, coordinated running and stopping

Fine motor milestones by age:

• Ages 2-3: Turning pages one at a time, stringing large beads, using scissors with assistance, drawing circles and lines, stacking 8+ blocks

• Ages 3-4: Using scissors independently, copying simple shapes (circle, cross), beginning to write some letters, using utensils effectively, building with smaller blocks

• Ages 4-5: Cutting shapes accurately, drawing recognizable pictures, writing letters and numbers, buttoning and zipping, using tools (glue, tape) independently

Why physical development matters for cognitive growth

Physical and cognitive development are deeply interconnected. Research demonstrates that motor skill development directly supports learning across domains. Fine motor control is the ability to coordinate small muscle movements. Fine motor control enables children to manipulate learning materials, use writing tools, and engage in hands-on exploration that builds conceptual understanding.

Gross motor activity does more than build strength and coordination. Active play stimulates blood flow to the brain, enhances neural connectivity, and improves executive function. Studies show that children who engage in regular physical activity demonstrate better attention, working memory, and cognitive flexibility … which are all the very skills needed for academic success.

Movement also builds spatial awareness, the foundation for mathematical thinking. When children navigate playground equipment, build with blocks, or dance to music, they develop an intuitive understanding of space, distance, and geometric relationships that later supports formal mathematics learning.

Key connections:

• Fine motor control → early writing and drawing ability

• Gross motor activity → enhanced executive function and sustained attention

• Physical play → spatial reasoning supporting mathematical concepts

• Movement breaks → improved focus and information retention

• Active exploration → hands-on learning that builds conceptual understanding

How adults support physical development:

• Providing daily opportunities for active outdoor play

• Offering age-appropriate materials for fine motor practice (crayons, playdough, puzzles)

• Modeling and encouraging new physical challenges

• Creating safe environments for movement exploration

• Integrating movement into learning activities

Social-Emotional Development

Strong caregiver-child relationships provide the foundation for emotional regulation and social competence (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2004). Secure attachment relationships in early childhood predict better outcomes in school readiness and peer relationships (Sroufe, 2005).

Social-emotional skills include recognizing emotions, managing feelings, building relationships and more. These skills are developed through consistent, responsive interactions with caring adults and form the foundation for all other learning.

Developmental milestones by age:

• Ages 2-3: Beginning to play alongside other children, showing defiant behavior (“No!”), expressing wide range of emotions, developing sense of self (“mine”), showing empathy when others are upset

• Ages 3-4: Playing cooperatively with others, taking turns with support, beginning to understand feelings of others, showing affection for friends, managing emotions with adult help

• Ages 4-5: Forming friendships, following rules in group settings, expressing emotions verbally rather than physically, showing concern for others’ feelings, understanding basic social norms

The Brain Develops from the Bottom Up

The brain develops sequentially from lower regions to higher regions, with early experiences shaping the foundational architecture that supports all later development (Perry & Hambrick, 2008)

Dr. Bruce Perry’s Neurosequential Model demonstrates that the brain develops in a specific order: brainstem (regulating basic functions), then midbrain (processing emotions), and finally cortex (enabling complex thinking). This developmental sequence has profound implications—children cannot effectively engage higher-order thinking when lower brain systems are stressed or underdeveloped.

Early stress and adversity can disrupt typical brain development, particularly in regions responsible for emotional regulation and social connection. However, research confirms that healing occurs through the same pathway as harm: relationships. Consistent, nurturing adult-child interactions help regulate children’s stress response systems and build resilience (Perry & Winfrey, 2021).

Environmental Influences on Brain Development

Large-scale longitudinal research tracking thousands of children confirms that environmental factors—including caregiver responsiveness, stress exposure, and access to enriching experiences—significantly influence brain development trajectories from prenatal development through early childhood (NIH HEALthy Brain and Child Development Study, 2024).

The developing brain is highly sensitive to environmental input. Quality of caregiving, exposure to stress or trauma, access to language-rich interactions, and availability of learning opportunities all shape neural architecture during the early years. This environmental sensitivity represents both vulnerability and opportunity: Challenging experiences can disrupt development, while supportive environments promote healthy growth despite challenging experiences.

Understanding trauma-informed development:

• Early experiences, especially relational experiences, shape brain architecture

• Stress affects the developing brain differently than it affects the adult brain

• Repetitive, predictable, nurturing interactions help develop healthy stress response systems

• Consistent routines and responsive care support children recovering from adversity

The ThinkPlayful™ Approach: Translating Science into Practice

WestEd’s independent evaluation found that families using ThinkPlayful™ reported significantly greater caregiver-child closeness (p < .01) and reduced caregiver math anxiety (p < .05) (Chen-Gaddini & Rice, 2025).

The ThinkPlayful™ guided play methodology translates developmental science into practical learning experiences. The approach recognizes that learning happens through relationships. Children learn best when adults provide responsive guidance, appropriate challenges, and emotional support.

Research-backed features include:

• Appropriate challenges at each child’s developmental level

• Guided activities designed for joyful adult-child interaction, both on-screen and off-screen

• Dashboard analytics that help caregivers keep track of each child’s learning activity

• Interactive experiences that promote the back-and-forth exchanges essential for learning

Supporting Child Development

Children’s brains develop through everyday interactions. Expensive toys or programs aren’t necessary—what matters most is engaged adult presence. Simple activities like cooking together, playing games, reading books, and having conversations build the neural connections that support all future learning.

Key principles:

• Follow children’s interests and build on natural curiosity

• Provide challenges that stretch (but don’t frustrate) abilities

• Use everyday moments as learning opportunities

• Celebrate effort and growth, not just outcomes

Looking Ahead: School Readiness

School readiness encompasses cognitive, social, emotional, and physical development—not just academic skills (National Education Goals Panel, 1995).

Children who enter school with strong self-regulation, social skills, and foundational knowledge are better equipped for academic success. These capacities develop through years of responsive adult-child interactions and age-appropriate learning experiences.

Join Our Research-Backed Approach

Ready to explore learning experiences grounded in the latest brain development research? ThinkPlayful™ combines the rigor of academic research with the joy of childhood learning.

References

Blair, C., & Razza, R. P. (2007). Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Development, 78(2), 647-663

Bethlehem, R. A. I., Seidlitz, J., White, S. R., et al. (2022). Brain charts for the human lifespan. Nature, 604(7906), 525-533. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-04554-y

Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University. (2007). The Science of Early Childhood Development

Chen-Gaddini, M., & Rice, J. (2025). Findings from an evaluation of ThinkPlayful™. WestEd

Duncan, G. J., et al. (2007). School readiness and later achievement. Developmental Psychology, 43(6), 1428-1446

Goldin-Meadow, S., Levine, S. C., Hedges, L. V., Huttenlocher, J., Raudenbush, S. W., & Small, S. L. (2014). New evidence about language and cognitive development based on a longitudinal study. American Psychologist, 69 (6), 588-599

Gonzalez, C., Ifenthaler, J., Maley, S., Hare, A., & Wood, E. (2021). Promoting executive function skills in preschoolers using a play-based program. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 720225

Kuhl, P. K. (2010). Brain mechanisms in early language acquisition. Neuron, 67(5), 713-727

Landry, S. H., Smith, K. E., & Swank, P. R. (2002). Environmental effects on language development in normal and high-risk child populations. Seminars in Pediatric Neurology, 9(3), 192-200

Moffitt, T. E., et al. (2011). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(7), 2693-2698

National Association for Sport and Physical Education. (2009). Active Start: A Statement of Physical Activity Guidelines for Children from Birth to Age 5 (2nd ed.). American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance

National Education Goals Panel. (1995). Reconsidering Children’s Early Development and Learning: Toward Common Views and Vocabulary

National Research Council. (2000). From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development. National Academies Press

National Research Council. (2009). Mathematics Learning in Early Childhood: Paths Toward Excellence and Equity. National Academies Press

National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2004). Young Children Develop in an Environment of Relationships. Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University

NIH HEALthy Brain and Child Development Study. (2024). Understanding early brain development. National Institutes of Health. https://heal.nih.gov/research/infants-and-children/healthy-brain

Perry, B. D., & Hambrick, E. P. (2008). The neurosequential model of therapeutics. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 17(3), 38-43

Perry, B. D., & Winfrey, O. (2021). What Happened to You? Conversations on Trauma, Resilience, and Healing. Flatiron Books

Sroufe, L. A. (2005). Attachment and development: A prospective, longitudinal study from birth to adulthood. Attachment & Human Development, 7(4), 349-367

Weisleder, A., & Fernald, A. (2013). Talking to children matters: Early language experience strengthens processing and builds vocabulary. Psychological Science, 24(11), 2143-2152

Our approach with ThinkPlayful™ is informed by the best practices of multiple educational frameworks while remaining grounded in decades of developmental science. We refine ThinkPlayful™ based on user feedback as well as on our recent RCT funded by the National Science Foundation and conducted by external research partner WestEd.